Physiological sub-typing of cold and freezing injury in Triticum turgidum subspecies with bioinformatic and expression characterization of glutathione reductase

Sipahi H., Kutlu İ., Darwıche R.

PEERJ, cilt.14, sa.1421678, ss.1-27, 2026 (SCI-Expanded, Scopus)

  • Yayın Türü: Makale / Tam Makale
  • Cilt numarası: 14 Sayı: 1421678
  • Basım Tarihi: 2026
  • Doi Numarası: 10.7717/peerj.21678
  • Dergi Adı: PEERJ
  • Derginin Tarandığı İndeksler: Natural Science Collection (ProQuest), Biological Science Database (ProQuest), Scopus, Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), BIOSIS, EMBASE, CAB Abstracts, MEDLINE, Directory of Open Access Journals
  • Sayfa Sayıları: ss.1-27
  • Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Adresli: Evet

Özet

Background

This study examined how different subspecies of Triticum turgidum (T. durum, T. polonicum, T. turanicum) respond to cold and freezing, assessing their water status, stress responses, and antioxidant system, with particular focus on the structure and function of glutathione reductase (TtGR).

Methods

TtGR genes were first identified from the T. turgidum genome using publicly available genomic resources such as Ensembl Plants. Promoter regions (~2 kb upstream) were analyzed to identify cis-regulatory elements using PlantCARE. Gene classification was performed based on predicted subcellular localization and conserved domain features. Plants were subjected to cold acclimation and freezing treatments, and physiological, biochemical, and enzymatic parameters were measured.

Results

Bioinformatics analyses identified four TtGR genes in the T. turgidum genome. The genes in two groups: cytosolic (Class I) and chloroplastic (Class II). Gene structure analysis showed a conserved exon–intron organization, while motif analysis confirmed the presence of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADPH)-binding and redox-active domains across all TtGR proteins. Several regulatory sequences in the promoters are involved in cold (DRE), abscisic acid (ABRE), and stress (STRE) responses, indicating that TtGR genes are dynamically regulated in response to environmental changes. Physiological analyses showed that freezing treatment reduces leaf water content in all genotypes, leading to turgor loss, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) accumulation, and increased malondealdehyte (MDA) levels. However, tolerance mechanisms addressing water stress and membrane damage differ among genotypes. At the biochemical level, activation of the antioxidant defense system occurs in all genotypes. T. turanicum displays strong defense by significantly increasing enzyme activities, ensuring that the ascorbate-glutathione cycle continues under stress. By contrast, T. polonicum, although showing increased overall enzyme activities, experiences a dramatic drop in glutathione reductase (GR) activity at freezing temperatures, which restricts reduced glutathione (GSH) regeneration and creates a functional bottleneck in the antioxidant cycle. T. durum fails to sustain enzyme activities over the stress period, leading to an intermediate-sensitive response. Thus, whereas T. turanicum effectively maintains antioxidant function during freezing, T. polonicum and T. durum exhibit less efficient stress responses, either through enzymatic bottlenecks or a lack of sustained defense.

Conclusions

One of the most striking findings of this study is the observed dissociation between TtGR gene expression levels and enzyme activities. Low temperature limits the link between transcription and enzyme function. The primary determinant of low-temperature tolerance in T. turgidum subspecies is the sustainability of GR enzyme activity and GSH regeneration under freezing conditions.